Everything about Historical Basis For King Arthur totally explained
The historical basis of King Arthur is a source of considerable debate among
historians. The
King Arthur of
Arthurian legend appears in many
legends but it hasn't been decisively established whether his origin was entirely mythical or whether he was based on one or more historical figures.
Historical basis
A popular view holds that Arthur was a real person. The most common suggestion, which is in line with the traditional cycle of legends, he was a
Romano-British leader fighting against the invading
Anglo-Saxons some time between the late
5th century and early
6th century.
Archaeological studies show that during Arthur's alleged lifetime, the Anglo-Saxon expansions do seem to have been halted for a whole generation. If he existed, his power base would probably have been in the
Celtic areas of
Wales,
Cornwall and the
West Country, the
Brythonic '
Old North' (covering modern
northern England and southern
Scotland) or possibly
Brittany. However, controversy over the centre of his supposed power and the extent and kind of power he'd have wielded continues to this day.
Early sources
There are only a few early sources that mention Arthur. The earliest, by date of composition, is a British poem, "
Gododdin", which was probably composed around the year
600. It refers to a warrior who "glutted black ravens [for examplekilled many men] on the rampart of the stronghold, though he was no Arthur". The earliest surviving manuscript of this poem dates from about the 11th century, however, so it's possible that this line is a later addition.
The Welsh poem '
Llongborth,' traditionally attributed to
Llywarch Hen, describes a battle at a port-settlement and mentions Arthur in passing; it also refers to him as "emperor." The poem is a praise-poem and elegy for a king called Geraint (Gerontius), who is often identified with
Geraint of Dumnonia.
The relevant verse from the poem is "In Llongborth I saw Arthur's Heroes who cut with steel. The Emperor, ruler of our labour"
The poem is found in
The Black Book of Carmarthen, compiled around 1250, from earlier documents. Y Gododdin was similarly copied at much the same time. The two poems differ in the relative archaic quality of their language, that of Gododdin being the older in form. However, this may merely reflect differences in the date of the last revision of the language within the two poems. The language would have had to be revised for the poems to remain comprehensible.
The next reference comes from the
Historia Brittonum, usually attributed to
Nennius, a Welsh ecclesiastic who was probably active in the early ninth century. Nennius lists a dozen battles fought by Arthur, and gives him the title of "dux bellorum", which can be translated as "war commander". Nennius also says that Arthur fought "alongside the kings of the Britons", rather than saying that Arthur was himself a king. One of the battles Nennius lists appears to be the same as a great British victory mentioned by
Gildas in an earlier history, the battle of
Mons Badonicus, though Gildas doesn't give the name Arthur. Gildas in his
De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (or
On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain) does mention a British king
Cuneglasus who had been "charioteer to the bear"; the Brythonic word for bear was "Art".
Possible historical identity
Magnus Maximus and other Western Emperors
As the
Western Roman Empire crumbled in the
4th and
5th Centuries, a number of ambitious generals in command of provincial armies rebelled and proclaimed themselves
emperor. In
383, a leading Roman officer in Britannia,
Magnus Maximus (aka Maximianus or
Macsen Wledig) proclaimed himself emperor and crossed, with his army, into
Gaul. He quickly defeated and killed the Western Emperor
Gratian, and for the next five years ruled the Western Empire, until
Theodosius I defeated and executed him in
388.
Arthur is also said to have crossed to the continent and fought against Imperial troops. In addition, according to
medieval Welsh texts, Arthur is sometimes described as an
ymerawdwr (Welsh for "emperor", from the
Latin imperator). Maximus himself was from
Hispania and could have been born to a family of
Celtiberian descent. According to
Geoffrey of Monmouth, 'Maximianus' was one of the kings of the Britons to precede Arthur. With the name Macsen Wledig, Maximus is featured in a story of the
Mabinogion, a collection of Medieval Welsh texts that also feature two stories on Arthur and one on
Taliesin.
As the Roman Empire continued to decay, there were numerous generals in Britannia who were 'raised to the purple', if even for a short time. One such was
Constantine III, who ruled for four years before being executed; according to Geoffrey, Constantine III was Arthur's grandfather.
Riothamus
Riothamus (aka Rigothamus or Riotimus) was a historical figure whom ancient sources list as "a
king of the Britons". He lived in the late 5th century, and most of the stories about him were recorded in the
Byzantine historian
Jordanes'
The Origin and Deeds of the Goths, written in the mid-6th century, only about 80 years after his presumed death.
Circa
460, the Roman diplomat and
bishop Sidonius Apollinaris sent a letter to Riothamus, asking his help to quell unrest among the Brettones, British colonists living in
Armorica. This letter still survives.
In the year
470, the Western Emperor
Anthemius began a campaign against
Euric, king of the
Visigoths who were invading Gaul. Anthemius requested help from Riothamus, and Jordanes writes that he crossed the ocean into Gaul with 12,000 warriors. The location of Riothamus’s army was betrayed to the Visigoths by the jealous Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, and Euric defeated him in a battle in Burgundy. Riothamus was last seen retreating near a town called
Avallon.
Geoffrey Ashe points out that, as above, Arthur is said by the early sources to have crossed into Gaul twice, once to help a Roman emperor and once to subdue a civil war. Assuming that Riothamus was a king in Britain as well as
Armorica, he did both. Arthur is also said to have been betrayed by one of his advisors, and Riothamus was betrayed by one of his supposed allies. Finally, it's well known how King Arthur was carried off to
Avalon (which Geoffrey of Monmouth spells "Avallon") before he died; Riothamus, escaping death, was last known to have been in the vicinity of a town called Avallon.
It is unknown whether Riothamus was a king in Britain, in Ireland or of Armorica; as Armorica was a British colony and Jordanes writes that Riothamus "crossed the ocean", it's possible both are correct. The name
Riothamus may possibly mean "high king", and so may just have been a title, perhaps borne by someone named Artorius or Arthur. On the other hand, Irish sources claim that
Niall of the Nine Hostages, Riothamus (High King) of Ireland, was campaigning in Gaul at this time, possibly dying about 455 in a campaign that went as far as the Alps. "All traditions agree that he died outside of Ireland. According to legend his followers carried his body back to Ireland, fighting seven battles along the way, and whenever they carried Niall's body before them they were unbeatable." The succeeding High King,
Feradach Dathí, also known as Nath Í, son of Fiachrae, son of
Eochaid Mugmedon, was also said to have made foreign conquests in Gaul at about this time, and died after being struck by lightning in the Alps.
Ambrosius Aurelianus
Ambrosius Aurelianus (also sometimes referred to as Aurelius Ambrosius) was a powerful
Romano-British leader in Britain. He was renowned for his campaigns against the Saxons, and there's some speculation that he may have commanded the British forces at the
Battle of Badon Hill. At any rate, the battle was a clear continuation of his efforts.
According to
Gildas (an early British historian and priest who may have been born during Aurelianus’ lifetime) in his sermon,
On the Ruin of Britain, following a massive Saxon invasion, Aurelianus was the only person who stayed calm, despite the fact that his parents and most other Roman settlers had been killed in the attacks. Subsequently, Aurelianus became leader of the remaining British (according to the Major Chronicle Annals, he rose to power in
479), organized them, and led them in their first victory against the Saxons, although subsequent battles went both ways. Gildas also writes that Aurelianus’ parents "wore the purple", and thus were apparently descended from Roman emperors. The
Aurelii were a noted
Roman senatorial family, and it's possible that Ambrosius was descended from them.
Badon Hill, depending on varying sources and archeological evidence, was fought sometime between
491 and
516 (Gildas, born in
494 or
516, writes that the battle took place at the year of his birth) with most scholars accepting a date around
500. The location of the battle is thought to have been in southwest
England, perhaps near the town of
Bath (called Badon by the Saxons) or the nearby
Solsbury Hill, where an ancient hill fort existed. However, some believe that Badon Hill is actually somewhere to the north, in or near modern
Scotland.
Badon Hill was fought between the British and the invading Saxons, believed to have been the
South Saxons under their
Bretanwealda (Lord of Britain, also spelled Bretwalda)
Aelle, reigned
477-
514. This title, used by the Saxons, is an odd one as it may be etymologically related to the Welsh
Brythonic 'Gweldig' which some interpret as meaning 'Emperor', applied to a number of British rulers such as
Cunedda. The Saxons were utterly defeated by the British (it is theorized that Aelle may have died in the battle), and didn't again attack the Celts until
571; even by the
590s the Celts were still inflicting large defeats on the Saxon kingdoms, leaving a final "golden age" for Celtic civilization in Britain.
Gildas fails to name the commander at Badon but he refers to one of his contemporary "fetter kings" as having been "charioteer to the bear". According to the
Brythonic
bard Taliesin, who lived approximately
534-
599, the British commander at Badon was the "chief giver of feasts" (
supreme commander, perhaps related to dux) Arthur, to whom the victory is attributed in all later accounts. Owing to a possible mistranslation of a word from Gildas, describing Aurelianus as either the "ancestor" or the "grandfather" of his descendants of Gildas’ generation, it's possible that Aurelianus lived in the generation before the Battle of Badon.
Geoffrey of Monmouth's
History of the Kings of Britain also states that Arthur led the forces at Badon; on the other hand, Geoffrey is notoriously unreliable and much of what he writes is incompatible with factual history. However, Geoffrey makes Aurelianus a king of Britain, and older brother of
Uther Pendragon, the father of King Arthur, thus relating Aurelianus and Arthur. He also states that Aurelianus was the son of the usurper emperor
Constantine III, although it's extremely unlikely to have actually been true.
Arthnou
Arthnou was an inhabitant of
6th century Tintagel. He is known only from
archaeology. A piece of slate bearing his name, and since dubbed the '
Arthur stone', was discovered during excavations of the 6th century layers under
Tintagel Castle. It was apparently a practice inscription for a dedicatory plaque within the structure of a building or other edifice. The
Latin inscription has been translated by
Charles Thomas to read "Artognou, father of a descendant of Coll, has had this built".
Artognou was the primitive
Brythonic form of a name that would be pronounced
Arthnou, meaning something akin to "bear-like". The prefix certainly links it to the 'Arthur' family of names. From the same area, pieces of expensive 6th century Mediterranean pottery have been excavated, showing that this high-status site was controlled by a rich and powerful noble with trade links with distant civilizations. According to
Geoffrey of Monmouth and subsequent
medieval writers, King Arthur was conceived at Tintagel. He implies that Arthur is a distant descendant of
Old King Cole, whose name could be spelled
Coll.
Athrwys ap Meurig
Historians Baram Blackett and
Alan Wilson have re-interpreted
Old Welsh manuscripts and other evidence to suggest that Arthur was
Athrwys ap Meurig, possibly a king of
Glamorgan and
Gwent, and have published some seven books on the subject. Their investigations have led to the discovery of what they believe to be two Arthurian artifacts of great importance, both of which have been independently examined and tested by experts. The first, discovered in
1983, is the
burial stone of Athrwys ap Meurig, which reads, "Rex Artorius, Fili Mavricius". The other, an
electrum cross weighing some two-and-a-half pounds, discovered in
1990, has been tested three times, contains 79% silver and reads "Pro Anima Artorius" or "for the Soul of Arthur". Chris Barber and David Pykitt have identified Arthur as the same man by similar means. However, they go on to suggest that he emigrated to
Brittany in old age and become known as
Saint Armel. Most scholars who have examined the names Athrwys and Arthur have rejected the idea of any similarity and suggested that Iolo Morgannwg's various spellings of the name Athrwys (on one page writing it as Arthur) led to later confusion.
Owain Ddantgwyn, the 'Arthur'
Graham Phillips and
Martin Keatman, in their book,
King Arthur: The True Story, argue that the name 'Arthur' was a mere title (see below) and that its recipient was
Owain Ddantgwyn, an apparent King of
Rhôs whom they relocate to
Powys. From a passage in
Gildas'
De Excidio Britanniae, they interpret the description of Owain's son,
Cuneglas, to mean that he was the successor at the 'bear's fort', the 'bear' or 'arth' being his father.
Áedán mac Gabráin
Áedán mac Gabráin was a king of the
Dál Riata Scotti from c.
574 to c.
608. He wasn't British, but could have been an influence on Arthur nonetheless; some theories say that Arthurian legends began in the north, and spread south. It has also been said that the Battle of Badon Hill, supposedly commanded by Arthur, was fought in the north.
Aidan was crowned on the island of
Iona by
St. Columba, the
Irish of the White Martydom. Iona was the centre of
Scottish Christianity and the place where the first Christian church in Scotland was built, and Columba the missionary priest who brought Christianity to Scotland from Ireland. Thus, Iona and Columba can be compared to the southern Avalon and
Joseph of Arimathea, both of which are important in Arthurian legend. Iona and Avalon are even similarly named. Columba is said to have been educated in Ireland by a priest taught by Gildas, the chronicler of the Battle of Badon Hill.
Áedán sought to make Dál Riata independent from the
Irish whose support Dál Riata had previously required, and in
603 went to war against the pagan Saxon kingdom of
Northumbria. The resulting
Battle of Degsastan (whose location, like Badon Hill, is unknown) could have helped fuel the northern Badon Hill theory, although Aidan lost to the Saxons.
In
608, Áedán died and was buried on Iona, similar to how Arthur was supposedly buried on Avalon. One of his sons, Artuir, is also seen as a possible model for the legendary leader (see below).
Artuir mac Áedáin
Though he was the eldest son of Áedán mac Gabráin, Artuir never became king of Dál Riata; his brother
Eochaid Buide ruled after his father's death. When Áedán apparently gave up his role and retired to monastic life, Artuir became war leader, though Áedán was officially still king. Thus it was Artuir who led the Scotti of
Dál Riata in a war against the Picts, separate from the later war with Northumbria. By this theory, Artur was predominantly active in the region between the Roman walls — the
Gododdin.
David F. Caroll argues that Artuir led a loose coalition of the
Christian Celts against their pagan invaders — effectively holding them off for about one hundred more years. He was ultimately killed in battle in 582. This is the solution proposed by
Michael Wood. However, Artur is merely one of the aforementioned four leaders who were probably named after the original Arthur. In modern times, Artur's name is spelled
Artuir. His name is almost certainly connected to the British Arthnou.
Many aspects of the King Arthur legend correspond to Artuir’s life. Artuir made use of an old Roman fortress known as Camelon (possibly the later Camelot), and he died in battle near the river Allan, also known as Camallan (possibly Camlann). Like the Arthur of legend he'd a sister called Morgan, and was a contemporary of Myrddin (who later came to be called Merlin). In myth, the mortally wounded Arthur was taken to an island called Avalon. In the 6th century there was an island surrounded by three rivers, Allan, Forth and Teith. On the island was a settlement called Invalone. This island was near the site of the real Artuir’s death and may be the inspiration for Avalon. It should also be noted that the earliest mentions of Arthur are in Welsh. The area of Scotland in which Artuir lived and fought (
Strathclyde) was Welsh speaking at this time.
However, this Artuir may have lived too late to be "the" Arthur, and he may have fought the wrong enemies. From the earliest accounts, Arthur's chief enemies were the
Saxons, not the Picts, and Áedán fought the Northumbrians
after Artur's death. Artuir was part of the generation born
after the Battle of Badon Hill, which took place between
491 and
516. He wasn't the only person named "Artur" or some variant of the name in his time. There was also an Arthur King of
Elmet, and an Arthur in
Pembroke. By contrast, "Artur[us]" had been a rare name, almost unattested until after Badon was fought — which suggests that he was named after the original Arthur (whose name might have been a
nom de guerre or an honorific). Also, Artuir mac Áedán died in battle with the Picts, while Arthur died in battle with Medraut (Mordred) of Lothian, who was
not Pictish. While he may not be the original Arthur-figure
per se, his story, like that of the other "Arthurs" may well have contributed to the growing legends.
The Appearance of Arthur in History
John Morris argues that the appearance of the name Arthur, as applied to the Scottish, Welsh and Pennine "Athurs", and the lack of the name at any time earlier, suggests that in the early sixth century the name became popular amongst the indigenous British for a short time. He proposes that all of these occurrences was due to the importance of another Arthur, who may have ruled temporarily as Emperor of Britain. He demonstrates on the basis of archaeological findings that after a period of Saxon advance, it was halted and surrounded by Celto-Roman finds, before resuming again in the 570's.
Earlier Arthurs
Some theories suggest, however, that Arthur had
Roman or even pre-Roman origins:
Lucius Artorius Castus
Writers such as
Kemp Malone,
C. Scott Littleton,
Ann Thomas and
Linda A. Malcor suggest that King Arthur should be identified as one
Lucius Artorius Castus, a Roman
dux of the
2nd century, who was
praefectus of the VI Legion in
Britannia and might have (though this is far from certain) led a
numerus of
Sarmatians, which was based at
Ribchester (
Bremetennacum) and which campaigned at and north of Hadrian’s Wall. Castus' alleged military exploits in Britain and Armorica may have been remembered for centuries afterward. This is linked to the original theory of Littleton, Thomas and Malcor which suggests that the folk narratives carried by the Alano-Sarmatians as well as history associated with various groups of Alano-Sarmatians formed the core of the Arthurian tradition (see below).
From
183–
185, the Caledonians overran Hadrian’s Wall. It has been suggested that
Emperor Commodus sent him to Britannia in the year
181 as commander of the VI Legion and others, and that along with his personal legion, he guarded
Hadrian's Wall (the border between
Britannia, or Roman England, and
Caledonia, or barbarian
Scotland) with a contingent of 5,500
Sarmatian heavy cavalry. It is also suggested that Castus’ standard was a large red dragon pennant; auxiliary forces didn't use eagle standards. In 185, when his legion collapsed, Castus returned to the northern city of
Eboracum, and was then sent by the governor of Britannia to lead cavalry cohorts against an uprising in Armorica (modern Brittany). However, Castus is only known from three inscriptions from
Podstrana on the
Dalmatian coast; these don't mention command of any other legions (or establish command of VI Victrix — he could have been
praefectus castrorum, third-in-command of the legion), provide evidence of command of the Sarmatians, or indicate anything about his standard.
Etymological links can be made tracing the name Arthur to Artorius; it's also true that no other recorded person in Britain,
Ireland, or
Scotland bears a name similar to
Arthur until after Castus’ tour of duty in Britannia was over (however, Arthur is always Latinized into
Arthurus, never
Artorius, thus suggesting that it was a distinct name). Arthur’s pennant is said to be the
Pendragon, a red dragon similar to the modern
Welsh flag. In the earliest descriptions of Arthur, he isn't a king, but is referred to as a
dux bellorum or "commander of war"; as also mentioned above, Castus held the Roman rank of dux.
In the
Historia Britonum, written shortly after AD 820, there's a list of twelve battles Arthur is stated to have been victorious in. About three centuries later,
Geoffrey of Monmouth in his
History of the Kings of Britain, places these twelve battles in the north against barbarians. Seven of these battles have been matched to battles Castus may have fought; but Castus isn't definitely known to have fought in any battles. Geoffrey also adds that Arthur fought a civil war, and twice took troops across the sea to
Armorica, once to support the Roman emperor and once to deal with his own rebels. Castus’ own legion mutinied, and he was sent to lead cavalry units in northwest
Gaul – the location of the region of Armorica – both against rebels and in support of the Roman emperor.
Earlier sources also place Arthur’s headquarters not at
Camelot but at
Caerleon, the "Fortress of Legions".
Eboracum, sometimes referred to as
Urbe Legionum or the "City of the Legion", was the headquarters of both Castus and of legions that supported the Roman forces patrolling Hadrian’s Wall.
Sarmatian connection
In
1978,
C. Scott Littleton and
Ann C. Thomas expanded on the ideas of
Vasily Abaev and
Georges Dumezil and published their theory of a connection between the
Sarmatian people and the history and later legend of King Arthur. The Alano-Sarmatians were steppe
nomads from what is now southern
Ukraine, who fought from horseback with a kontus ('lance'), longsword and bow and carried a shield with a
tamga marking, similar to heraldry. They wore scale armour and conical helms, and were known in the 2nd century for their skill as heavy cavalry. In
175,
Marcus Aurelius hired 8,000 Sarmatians into Roman service. 5,500 of these recruits were sent to the northern borders of Britain. These men probably settled around their base in modern-day
Lancashire, where their descendants were still documented as a "troop of Sarmatian veterans" in
428.
The culture of the Sarmatians is also relevant to the legends of Arthur. Apart from their skill as armoured
knights, they held great, near religious, fondness for their swords — their tribal worship was directed at a sword sticking up from the ground, similar to the
Sword in the Stone motif. They carried standards in the form of
dragons, a symbol also used by Arthur and his father
Uther Pendragon.
Proponents of the 'Sarmatian connection' theory also look to the legends of the Sarmatians' descendants for evidence. The
Ossetians, an
Iranian people from
Ossetia, a country in the Caucasus, speak the
Ossetic language, the only Sarmatian language still spoken. The Ossetian
Nart sagas, indigenous epics celebrating the exploits of an ancient tribe of heroes, contain a number of interesting parallels to the Arthurian legends. First, the life of the Nart warrior
Batraz is tied to his sword, which must be thrown into the sea at his death. When the wounded Batraz asks his last surviving comrade to do the task for him, his companion tries to fool him twice before finally hurling the weapon into the sea. This is very similar to the tale of Arthur's wondrous sword
Excalibur which had to be returned to the
Lady of the Lake at his death by his last surving knight,
Bedivere. Like Batraz' friend, Bedivere is reluctant to lose such a wonderful sword and lies to his master twice before finally assenting. Additionally, the Nart heroes,
Soslan and Sosryko, collect the beards of vanquished enemies to trim their cloaks, which is the practice of Arthur's enemy
Rience. Like Rience, Soslan has one last beard to obtain before his cloak is complete. Another similar motif is the Cup of the Narts ("Nartyamonga"), which appeared at feasts, delivered to each person what he liked best to eat, and which was kept by the bravest of the Narts ("Knights") and the magical woman, dressed in white, associated with water, who helps the hero acquire his sword and the Lady of the Lake.
Although they lived hundreds of years too early (the Saxons first came to Britain three centuries later), Lucius Artorius Castus and Sarmatian cavalry may have been remembered in some form, and could have helped to create the basis for the early tales of King Arthur. While most 'Sarmatian connection' supporters tie the origins of the Arthurian legend to Lucius Artorius Castus and his 2nd century cavalry, others suggest that some Sarmatian details, like the Sword in the Stone itself, may have been added later in French romances, possibly entering the tradition as the result of the impact of the Alans on Europe in the fifth century A.D. .
However, those who don't accept the Sarmatian connection would argue that the obscurity surrounding Castus makes this identification unlikely, as there seems to be little reason for him to have become a major legendary figure. No Roman historical source actually mentions him, or his alleged exploits in Britain. Nor is there actually any firm evidence that he ever commanded Sarmatians. Also, the greatest resonance of Arthurian tales with Sarmatian ones occur in very late writings, relatively speaking, such as Malory's
Le Morte Darthur (when Arthur and his men were already developed into "knights in shining armor") and
none appear in the earliest Welsh legends, such as those in the
Mabinogion — which lead some to conclude that Sarmatian influence was limited to the development of the tales instead of historical basis, if at all.
The heroes of the 2004 film
King Arthur are loosely based on Lucius Artorius Castus and his Sarmatian cavalry. The film's Arthur is a descendant of Artorius and inherits his role of guarding
Hadrian's Wall along with a troop of Sarmatian warriors.
A pre-Roman Arthur
Darrah and
Cumins propose an Arthur who lived in the
Bronze Age, circa 2300 BC. Other sources, including Ed Joyce in
The Key to Camelot argue that pulling a sword from a stone and an anvil is a metaphor for setting a bronze sword in a stone mould and hammering it into shape on an anvil. Similarly, the return of prized weaponry to the waters appears to have been a British Iron Age funerary practice, as evidenced by the many such items dredged from large rivers and lakes. Geoffrey of Monmouth writes in 'The History of the Kings of Britain' that Merlin built Stonehenge. The fact that the bluestones at the site were placed at approximately 2300BC has led Cummins and others to speculate that parts of the legends reflect a folk memory of historical events. These ideas are disputed by those who point out that the Sword in the Stone is a late medieval embellishment to the legend.. Roderick MacLeish's fiction book
Prince Ombra includes this metaphor in its retelling of the Arthurian legend.
Mythological basis
Some hold that Arthur originally was a half-forgotten
Celtic deity or hero that devolved into a personage.
The word
arth is modern
Welsh for "bear", and among
Continental Celts (although not in Britain) there were several bear gods named
Artos or
Artio. Also,
artur (Welsh) and
arturus (
Latin) meant "bear-man". King Arthur was supposedly referred to by some writers as the
Bear of Britain.
It has also been suggested that Arthur was originally a Celtic or prehistoric demi-god, whose legends were gradually adapted to fit historical fact as a means of keeping the Celtic legends alive after Christianity was introduced. An example would be the sea-god
Llyr, who became the legendary
King Lear.
Arthur's story also bears many similarities to Celtic mythologies, such as the hero's possession of a magical weapon (see
Gáe Bulg), the
Lady of the Lake having many similarities to Celtic water deities, etc.
Still another theory is that Arthur was a completely legendary person, the hero of Celtic bards meant to inspire and enthrall listeners, similar to the Germanic stories of
Beowulf (or, in some stories,
Bodvar Biarki). In fact, Beowulf was composed (c. late
8th Century) by
Saxon settlers in Britain around the time the first stories of Arthur were emerging, and Arthur and Beowulf share several similarities: both were brave war-leaders who later became king; both carried magical swords; both were betrayed by their men; and both died without an heir. Dragons figure prominently in both stories, and like Arthur, the name
Beowulf means "bear" (the alternate name for Beowulf, Bodvar Biarki, means "battle bear").
It is conceivable that Beowulf could have provided at least some influence on the emerging legends of King Arthur, or vice-versa, or both;
Beowulf is set in the
6th Century, the time period of the early
Arthurian legends. Even if the earliest spoken form of the
Anglo-Saxon legends didn't influence the early stories of Arthur, the written version — first transcribed by monks (who
Christianized it, just as they Christianized earlier Celtic legends) in England in the
10th Century, could have influenced later Arthurian writers such as Geoffrey of Monmouth (who wrote in
Wales in the
12th century).
Arthur also may hold influences from
Sigmund of the
Volsunga Saga. Both Arthur and Sigmund had royal ties. Both drew a sword in order to prove those ties (Arthur drew his from a stone while Sigmund drew his from the roots of a tree). Both of them also had involvement with incest and had a bastard son.
No historical basis
A school of thought, with growing numbers since the publication of Dr.
David Dumville's criticisms, argues that Arthur had no historical existence at all, on the basis that none of the sources are contemporary or reliable.
Other Arthurian characters
The
Battle of Camlann, the final battle between Arthur and Mordred, is likely to be fictional; however, it's recorded in the
Welsh Annals or "Annales Cambriae" (although this is probably a later addition), and several sites in Britain have been associated with it.
As he's recorded in the
Annales Cambriae and other early sources,
Mordred may have been a real person. The Annales Cambriae for the year 537 puts them at the Battle of Camlann, although it doesn't state that they fought on opposite sides. Instead, it refers to:
"The Strife of Camlann in which Arthur and Medraut (Mordred) perished" (This has led some historians, as well as fiction authors like
Mary Stewart, to wonder if the historical Arthur and Mordred could have fought on the same side, against the Saxons).
Morgan le Fay, Arthur's half-sister of legend, was possibly based on the Celtic goddesses
Morrigan or
Modron. Carroll suggests that Morgan may be a corruption of Maithgen, sister of Artur (see above).
The
Fisher King may be based on the legend of
Joseph of Arimathea or the Celtic god
Avalloc. As a matter of interest, in Celtic legend Avalloc was the father of Modron.
As explained above, the
Grail Quest may have been largely influenced by the Sarmatian folklore of Batraz and his Narts. However, Celtic and Anglo-Saxon traditions also are filled with quests by heroes, and in Celtic folklore there are tales of a magical cup with healing powers. These tales undoubtedly were adapted to refer to the
Holy Grail as Britain became Christianized.
Bedivere is, along with Arthur and Merlin, one of the oldest characters in Arthurian legend, and thus is more likely to have been a real person than newer additions. He appears in the
Mabinogion and is connected with the Welsh Finddu dynasty; his father, Pedrod, may have been the historical Welsh monarch Pedr.
Merlin was the name given to two historical figures,
Myrddin Wyllt ("Wild Merlin") and Myrddin Emrys ("Majestic Merlin"), combined by Geoffrey of Monmouth into one. The former was a bard who went mad after his king was killed by two rivals (one of whom was the above-mentioned Pedrod) and went to live in a forest. Merlin may also have been influenced by Taliesin. However, both Merlins and Taliesin all lived in the late 6th Century, after the time of most of the above-listed historical Arthurs.
Vortigern, the usurper king who, according to legend, invited the Saxons to land in Britain as mercenaries before being killed by
Uther Pendragon, was a historical person, as were
Hengest and
Horsa, the Saxon leaders who rebelled against him. Vortigern itself (like Riothamus) apparently means "highest king", and he could possibly have been named something else.
Table
This following table shows the linkage between the “finished product” of Arthurian names, and their mythical and/or factual sources (some confirmed, others hypothesized).
Sources for Arthurian Characters>
| Aurelius Ambrosius |
Ambrosius Aurelianus |
Ambrosius |
Arthur
| Ambrosius Aurelianus, Riothamus, Lucius Artorius Castus, Artognou, Áedán mac Gabráin, Caradoc Vreichvras, Artoriani |
Artio/Artos, Batraz |
Bedivere
| Bedwyr Bedrydant ap (son of) Pedrod |
NA |
Fisher King
| NA |
Avalloc, Joseph of Aramathea |
Gawain
| King Gwalchmai Of Gododdin |
Gwalchmai, Cúchullain |
Gorlois
| Gwrlais |
NA |
Gracianus Municeps
| Gratianus |
NA |
The Holy Grail
| The Holy Grail |
Holy Chalice, cauldron of Bran the Blessed |
Kay
| Gaius of Caer Goch |
NA |
Knights of the Round Table
| Artoriani, leadership councils, warriors |
Narts, heroic companion myths |
Lot
| Lot Luwddoc, Liot |
NA |
Macsen Wledig
| Magnus Maximus |
NA |
Mark of Cornwall
| Marcus Cunomorus |
NA |
Merlin
| Myrddin Wyllt, Myrddin Emrys, Taliesin |
Ambrosius |
Mordred
| Medraut |
Mabon ap Modron, Melwas/Malagrant |
Morgan le Fay
| Maithgen |
Morrigan, Modron, Dea Matrona |
Percival
| Peredur Arueu Dur |
NA |
The Round Table
| Caerleon amphitheater, Bryn-Rhyd-yr-Arian, Penrith |
NA |
Tristan
| Drustanus |
NA |
Uriens of Gore
| Urien Rheged |
NA |
Yvain
| Owain mab Urien |
NA |
Further Information
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